句子的组成

句子 = 主干 + 修饰部分

其中，主干就是英语中五大句型（简单句)。

五大句型

graph LR
简单句 --> 主谓
主谓 --> id1["we meet"]
简单句 --> 主谓宾
主谓宾 --> id2["I like it"]
简单句 --> 主谓宾宾
主谓宾宾 --> id3["I give you my heart"]
简单句 --> 主谓宾补
主谓宾补 --> id4["You make me happy"]
简单句 --> 主系表
主系表 --> id5["You are my destiny"]

主谓(一个句子最不可或缺的两个部分）：You jump；I jump.
主谓宾（宾语是主语动作的对象)：I love him.
主谓宾（人）宾（物）：please do me(人） a favor（物）.（检验是双宾语的原则：两个宾语可以调换位置，增加相应介词 to/for please do a favor for me ）
主谓宾补（补充说明宾语）：I found the book easy(the book 是found 的对象，easy是用来修饰the book 的)（检验是宾补的原则：宾语和补语之间加一个系动词，可以构成语义通顺的句子 the book is easy）
主系表（说明主语的状态特点）：She is pretty.

句子中的修饰成分

五种基本句型，是解读英语句子和构造英语句子的基础，任何高阶复杂的句子都是从这五种简单句型通过扩大，组合，省略或倒装等变化而来。

修饰成分包括定语和状语，定语负责修饰限定名词，状语负责把句子壮大。

graph LR
定语-修饰限定名词 -->  形容词
定语-修饰限定名词 -->  定语从句 --> 引导词+陈述句
定语-修饰限定名词 -->  介词短语 --> 介词+名词
定语-修饰限定名词 -->  非谓语动词 
非谓语动词 --> id1["to do"]
非谓语动词 --> id2["doing"]
非谓语动词 --> id3[done]

形容词：She is a lovely girl. 她是一位可爱的女孩。
定语从句：New York is the place that he would like to visit. 纽约是他想去游览的地方。
介词短语：The girl in red is my sister. 穿红色那个女孩是我的妹妹。
非谓语动词：the girl standing there is my sister.

the girl who is standing there is my sister. 站在那的女孩是我的妹妹。

the building completed yesterday…=the building that was completed yesterday… 昨天竣工的楼房…

I have something to say.

从上面非谓语例句可以看到非谓语动词可以变成定语从句

graph LR
状语-扩大句子 --> 名词
状语-扩大句子 --> 副词
状语-扩大句子 --> 状语从句 --> 引导词+陈述句
状语-扩大句子 -->  介词短语 --> 介词+名词
状语-扩大句子 --> 非谓语动词

非谓语动词 --> id1["to do"]
非谓语动词 --> id2["doing"]
非谓语动词 --> id3[done]

名词: come this way.
副词: speak politely.
介词短语：Can you say it in English.
状语从句：I enjoyed myself when I visited my friends in Shanghai last year.
非谓语动词：Having finished the homework, I went home.

Given more time, I could write the essay better.

To give the teacher a good impression, I decided to help her.

Present and past

Unit 1: Present continuous (I am doing)

I am=doing something = I’m in the middle of doing it; I’ve started doing it and I haven’t finished.

I am eating food.
I am taking a corporate training course.

Sometimes the action is not happening at the time of speaking. For example:

Steve is talking to a friend on the phone. He says:
I’m reading a really good book at the moment. it’s about a man who …

Steve is not reading the book at the time of speaking.He means that he has started it, but has not finished it yet. He is in the middle of reading it.

You can use the present continuous with today / this week / this year etc. (periods around now)

You’re working hard today. (not You work hard today)
The company I work for isn’t doing so well this year.

We use the present continuous when we talk about changes happening around now, especially with these verbs:

get, change, become, increase, rise, fall, grow, improve, begin, start

Is your English getting better?( not Does your English get better)
The world is changing.
The population of the world is increasing very fast. (not increases)
At first I didn’t like my job, but I’m beginning to enj oy it now. (not I begin)

Unit 2: Present simple (I do)

We use the present simple to talk about things in general. We use it to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly/ or that something is true in general.

Nurses look after patients in hospitals.
I usually go away at weekends.
The cafe opens at 7.30 in the morning.

We use do/does to make questions and negative sentences (auxiliary verb).

do I/we/you/they work?
he/she/it doesn’t do
I come from Canada. Where do you come from?
I don’t go away very often.
What does this word mean? (not What means this word?)

In the following examples, do is also the main verb (do you do/doesn’t do etc.):

‘What do you do?’ ‘I work in a shop.’

We use the present simple to say how often we do things:

I get up at 8 o’clock every morning.
How often do you go to the dentist?
Julie doesn’t drink tea very often.
Robert usually goes away two or three times a year.

I promise/I apologise etc.

Sometimes we do things by saying something. For example, when you promise to do something, you can say ‘I promise …‘; when you suggest something, you can say ‘I suggest …‘, In the same way we say: I apologise .. . / I advise … / I insist … / I agree … / I refuse … etc.

I promise I won’t be late. (not I’m promising)
‘What do you suggest I do?’ ‘I suggest that you … ‘

Unit 3: Present continuous and present simple 1 (I am doing and I do)

Compare:

Present continuous(I am doing)	Present Simple(I do)
now	paste ⬅️ now ➡️ future
We use the continuous for things happening at or around the time of speaking. The action is not complete. Example: The water is boiling, Can you turn it off ?	We use the simple for things in general or things that happen repeatedly. Example: Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius.
*We use the continuous for temporary* situations*. Example*: I‘m living with some friends until I find a place of my own.	*We use the simple for permanent* situations*. Example: My parents live* in London. They have lived there all their lives.

I always do and I’m always doing

I always do (something) = I do it every time:

I always go to work by car. (not I’m always going)

‘I‘m always doing something’ has a different meaning.

I‘m always losing things = I lose things very often, perhaps too often, or more often than normal.

I’ve lose my phone again. I’m always losing things.
You’re always playing computer games. You should do something more active.(=You play computer games too often)
Tim is never satisfied. He’s always complaining. (=He complains too much)

Unit 4: Present continuous and present simple 2 (I am doing and I do)

We use continuous forms for actions and happenings that have started but not finished. Some verbs (for example, know and Like) are not normally used in this way. We don’t say ‘I am knowing’ or ‘they are liking’; we say ‘I know‘, ‘they Like’.

The following verbs are not normally used in the present continuous:

like, want, need, prefer, know, realise, belong, fit, suppose, mean, understand, believe, remember, contain, consist, seem, …

I’m hungry. I want something to eat. (not I’m wanting)
Do you understand what I mean?
Anna doesn’t seem very happy at the moment.

Think

When think means ‘believe’ or ‘have an opinion’, we do not use the continuous:

I think Mary is Canadian, but I’m not sure. (not I’m thinking)
What do you think of my plan? (=What is your opinion?)

When think means ‘consider’, the continuous is possible:

I’m thinking about what happened. I often think about it.
Nicky is thinking of giving up her job. (=she is considering it)

See hear smell taste

We normally use the present simple (not continuous) with these verbs:

Do you see that man over there? (not Are you seeing)
This room smells. Lefs open a window.

We often use can + see/ hear/smell/taste:

I can hear a strange noise. Can you hear it?

Look feel

You can use the present simple or continuous to say how somebody looks or feels now:

You Look well today. or You’re Looking well today.
How do you feel now? or How are you feeling now?

He is selfish and He is being selfish

He’s being = He’s behaving/He’s acting. Compare:

I can’t understand why he’s being so selfish. He isn’t usually like that.

(being selfish = behaving selfishly at the moment)
He never thinks about other people. He is very selfish. (not He is being)

(= He is selfish generally, not only at the moment)

We use am/is/are being to say how somebody is behaving. lt is not usually possible in other sentences :

it’s hot today. (not lt is being hot)
Sarah is very tired . (not is being tired)

Unit 5: Past simple (I did)

In questions and negatives we use did/didn’t+ infinitive (enjoy/see/go etc.):

A: Did you go out last night?

B: Yes, I went to the cinema, but I didn’t enjoy the film much.

In the following examples, do is the main verb in the sentence (did … do / didn’t do):

What did you do at the weekend? (not What did you at the weekend?)
I didn’t do anything. (not I didn’t anything)

Unit 6: Past continuous (I was doing)

Yesterday Karen and jim played tennis. They started at 10 o’clock and finished at 11.30.So, at 10.30 they were playing tennis.

They were playing = they were in the middle of playing. They had not finished playing.

Was/were -ing is the past continuous:

I was doing something= I was in the middle of doing something at a certain time. The action or situation had already started before this time, but had not finished:

This time last year I was living in Brazil.
What were you doing at 10 o’clock last night?

We often use the past simple and the past continuous together to say that something happened in the middle of something else:

Matt phoned while we were having dinner.
lt was raining when I got up.
I saw you in the park yesterday. You were sitting on the grass and reading a book.

But we use the past simple to say that one thing happened after another:

I was walking along the road when I saw Dan. So I stopped, and we had a chat.
When Karen arrived, we were having dinner. (= we had already started before she arrived)
When Karen arrived, we had dinner. (= Karen arrived, and then we had dinner)

Present perfect and past

Unit 7: Present perfect1 (I have done)

Tom is looking for his key. He can’t find it. He has lost his key.

He has lost his key = He lost it recently, and he still doesn’t have it.

The present perfect simple is have/has+ past participle.

When we say that ‘something has happened’, this is usually new information:

Ow! I‘ve cut my finger.
The road is closed. There‘s been (there has been) an accident.
Police have arrested two men in connection with the robbery.

When we use the present perfect, there is a connection with now. The action in the past has a result now:

‘Where’s your key?’ ‘I don’t know. I’ve lost it.’ (=I don’t have it now)
‘Is Sally here?’ ‘No, she’s gone out.’ (=she is out now)
I can’t find my bag. Have you seen it? (= Do you know where it is now?)

Note the difference between gone (to) and been (to):

James is on holiday. He has gone to Italy. (= he is there now or on his way there)
Jane is back home now. She has been to Italy. (=she has now come back)

You can use the present perfect with just, already and yet.

just = a short time ago:

‘Are you hungry?’ ‘No, I‘ve just had lunch.’
Hello. Have you just arrived?

already = something happened sooner than expected:

‘Don’t forget to pay your electricity bill.’ ‘I’ve already paid it.’
‘What time is Mark leaving?’ ‘He‘s already left.’

yet = until now. yet shows that the speaker is expecting something to happen. Use yet only in questions and negative sentences:

Has it stopped raining yet?
I ‘ve written the email, but I haven’t sent it yet.

You can also use the past simple (did, went, had etc.) in the examples on this page. So you can say:

‘Is Sally here?’ ‘No, she went out.’ or ‘No, she’s gone out.’
‘Are you hungry?’ ‘No, I just had lunch.’ or ‘No, I’ve just had lunch.’

Unit 8: Present perfect2 (I have done)

DAVE: Have you travelled a lot, Jane? Yes, I’ve been to lots of places.
JANE: Really? Have you ever been to China? Yes, I’ve been to China twice.
DAVE: What about India?
JANE: No, I haven’t been to India.

When we talk about a period of time that continues from the past until now, we use the present perfect (have been I have traveLLed etc.). Here, Dave and jane are talking about the places Jane has visited in her life, which is a period that continues until now.

Have you ever eaten caviar?
We‘ve never had a car.
Susan really loves that film. She’s seen it eight times!

Been (to)= visited:

I’ve never been to China. Have you been there?

In the following examples too, the speakers are talking about a period that continues until now (recently / in the last few days / so far / since breakfast etc.):

Have you heard anything from Brian recently?
I’ve met a lot of people in the last few days.
Everything is going well. We haven’t had any problems so far.
I’m hungry. I haven’t eaten anything since breakfast. (=from breakfast until now)
lt’s good to see you again. We haven’t seen each other for a Long time.

In the same way we use the present perfect with today / this evening / this year etc. when these periods are not finished at the time of speaking:

I’ve drunk four cups of coffee today.
Have you had a holiday this year?
I haven’t seen Tom this morning. Have you?
Rob hasn’t worked very hard this term.

We say: lt’s the (first) time something has happened. For example:

Don is having a driving lesson. lt’s his first one.

lt’s the first time he has driven a car. (not drives)
He has never driven a car before.
Bill is phoning his girlfriend again. That’s the third time he’s phoned her this evening. (not happens)

Unit 9: Present perfect continuous(I have been doing)

lt has been raining

Study this example situation:

‘Is it raining?’ ‘No, but the ground is wet.’
lt has been raining.

Have/has been -ing is the presentperfect continuous:

We use the present perfect continuous for an activity that has recently stopped or just stopped. There is a connection with now:

You’re out of breath. Have you been running? (= you’re out of breath now)
Paul is very tired. He’s been working very hard. (= he’stired now)
Why are your clothes so dirty? What have you been doing?
I’ve been talking to Amanda about the problem and she agrees with me.
Where have you been? I’ve been looking for you everywhere.

lt has been raining for two hours.

lt began raining two hours ago and it is still raining.

‘How long has it been raining ?’ ‘lt has been raining for two hours.’

We use the present perfect continuous in this way especially with how long, for … and since …. The activity is still happening (as in this example) or has just stopped.

How long have you been Learning English? (=you’re still learning English)
Tim is still watching TV. He‘s been watching TV all day.
Where have you been? I‘ve been looking for you for the last half hour.
Chris hasn’t been feeling well recently.

You can use the present perfect continuousfor actions repeated over a period of time:
Silvia is a very good tennis player. She’s been playing since she was eight.
Every morning they meet in t he same cafe. They’ve been going there for years.

Unit10: Present perfect continuous and Present perfect (I have been doing and I have done)

I am confused for this section, the difference between the present perfect continuous and the present perfect seems not so much…..but I still record that.

I’ve been painting my bedroom.

We are thinking of the activity. lt does not matter whether it has been finished or not. In this example, the activity (painting the bedroom) has not been finished.

I‘ve painted my bedroom.

Here, the important thing is that something has been finished. We are interested in the result of the activity (the painted bedroom), not the activity itself.

Present perfect continuous

My hands are very dirty. I’ve been repairing my bike.
Joe has been eating too much recently. He should eat less.
lt’s nice to see you again. What have you been doing since we last met?
Where have you been? Have you been playing tennis?

Present perfect

My bike is OK again now. I’ve repaired it.
Somebody has eaten all the chocolates. The box is empty.
Where’s the book I gave you? What have you done with it?
Have you ever played tennis?

We use the continuous to say how long (for something that is still happening):

How long have you been reading that book?
Lisa is writing emails. She’s been writing emails all morning.
They’ve been playing tennis since 2 o’clock.

We use the simple to say how much, how many or how many times:

How much of that book have you read ?
Lisa is writing emails. She’s sent lots of emails this morning.
They’ve played tennis three times this week.
I’m learning Arabic, but I haven’t learnt very much yet.

Some verbs (for example, know/like/believe) are not normally used in the continuous:

I’ve known about the problem for a long time. (not I’ve been knowing)
How long have you had that camera? (not have you been having)

But note that you can use want and mean in the present perfect continuous:

I’ve been meaning to phone Jane1 but I keep forgetting.

Unit11: How long have you (been) … ?

Dan and Jenny are married. They got married exactly 20 years ago, so today is their 20th wedding anniversary.

They have been married for 20 years.

We say: They are married. (present)

but How long have they been married? (present perfect) (not How long are they married?)

They have been married for 20 years. (not They are married for 20 years)

We use the present perfect to talk about something that began in the past and still continues now.

Compare the present and the present perfect:

Paul is in hospital.

He‘s been in hospital since Monday. (not Paul is in hospital since Monday)

I have known / had / lived etc. is the present perfect simple.

I have been learning/been waiting/been doing etc. is the present perfect continuous

When we ask or say ‘how long’, the continuous is more usual:

I’ve been learning English for six months.
lt’s been raining since Lunchtime.
Richard has been doing the same job for 20 years.
‘How long have you been driving?’ ‘Since I was 17.’

Some verbs (for example, know/like/believe/have) are not normally used in the continuous:

How long have you known jane? (not have you been knowing)
I‘ve had a pain in my stomach all day. (not I’ve been having)

You can use either the present perfect continuous or simple with live and work:

Julia has been living I has lived here for a long time.
How long have you been working I have you worked here?

But use the simple (I‘ve lived I I‘ve done etc.) with always:

I’ve always lived in the country. (not always been living)

We say ‘I haven’t done something since/for …’ (present perfectsimple):

I haven’t seen Tom since Monday. (= Monday was the last time I saw him)
Sarah hasn’t phoned for ages. (=the last time she phoned was ages ago)

Unit12: For and since When … ? and How Long … ?

We use for and since to say how long something has been happening.

We use for + a period of time (two hours, six weeks etc.):

I’ve been waiting for two hours.
Sally has been working here for six months. (not since six months)
I haven’t seen Tom for three days.

We use since + the start of a period (8 o’clock, Monday,1999 etc.):

Sally has been working here since April. (=from April until now)
I haven’t seen Tom since Monday.

lt is possible to leave out for (but not usually in negative sentences):

They’ve been married (for) ten years. (with or without for)
They haven’t had a holiday for ten years. (you must use for)

We do not use for+ all … (all day I all my life etc.):

I’ve lived here all my life. (not for all my life)

You can use in instead of for in negative sentences (I haven’t … etc.):

They haven’t had a holiday in ten years. (=for ten years)

Compare when … ? (+past simple) and how long … ? (+present perfect):

A: When did Joe and Carol first meet?
B: They first met when they were at school. (or a long time ago.)
A: How long have they known each other?
B: They’ve known each other for a long time. (or since they were at school.)

lt’s or lt’s been + a long time + since something happened.

lt’s two years since I last saw Joe. or lt’s been two years since… (= I haven’t seen Joe for two years)
How Long is it since Mrs Hill died? or How long has it been since .. . ? (= When did Mrs Hill die?)

Unit13: Present perfect and past 1 (I have done and I did)

The present perfect (something has happened) is a present tense. lt always tells us about the situation now. ‘Tom has lost his key’= he doesn’t have his key now.

The past simple (something happened) tells us only about the past. If somebody says ‘Tom lost his key’, this doesn’t tell us whether he has the key now or not. lt tells us only that he lost his key at some time in the past.

Do not use the present perfect if the situation now is different.

They went away, but I think they’re back at home now. (not They’ve gone)

You can use the present perfect for new or recent happenings:

‘I’ve repaired the washing machine. lt’s working OK now.’ ‘Oh, that’s good.’

Usually, you can also use the past simple:

I repaired the washing machine. lt’s working OK now.

Use the past simple (not the present perfect) for things that are not recent or new:

My mother grew up in Italy. (not has grown)

Compare:

Did you know that somebody has invented a new type of washing machine?
Who invented the telephone? (not has invented)

We use the present perfect to give new information. But if we continue to talk about it, we normally use the past simple:

A : Ow! I’ve burnt myself.

B: How did you do that? (not have you done)

A: I picked up a hot dish. (not have picked)
A: Look! Somebody has spilt something on the sofa.

B: Well, it wasn’t me. I didn’t do it. (not hasn’t been … haven’t done)

参考资料

[1]English Grammar in Use Answers 4th

[2]王垠.解谜英语语法

英语基础

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